tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-72626650795922254752023-11-16T01:48:35.591+07:00maya dunia mayadewi maya sarihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15834181005858421380noreply@blogger.comBlogger40125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7262665079592225475.post-61901225321023905832009-12-29T10:56:00.000+07:002009-12-29T10:56:10.155+07:00teaching 10<span style="color: white; font-family: arial;"> <b>GOOD TEACHING</b></span> <br />
<div style="text-align: center;"> GOOD TEACHING<br />
</div><blockquote><center><span>By Theodore R. Sizer, Former Dean, Harvard University College of Education.<br />
Reprinted with permission.</span></center></blockquote><br />
I'd like to talk briefly about good teaching. I fear doing this,knowing well how fine teachers differ as their characters and styles differ. Idiosyncrasy is a virtue to the extent that successful teaching rests on character - and I believe it heavily rests there. By describing a generalized view of good teaching, I may unintentionally signal to you an intolerance of idiosyncrasy. I do not wish to do so. I am also concerned that I may give the impression that I think teaching <em>per se</em> is important. Of course, it isn't; what is only important is what the students learn. By speaking of teaching, I hope I won't muddy the truism that our actions as instructors are a means to an end -- a pupil's knowledge -- rather than an end in themselves. <br />
However, with these reservations expressed, let me proceed. Brilliant teaching, in my view, at its heart reflects scholarship, personal integrity and the ability to communicate with the young. <br />
<b>Scholarship</b> is both the grasp of a realm of knowledge and a habit of mind. An effective teacher provokes both from his students. But particularly the latter, as it is a habit of mind, rather than facts, which endure in a person over a lifetime. Scholarship is not only an affair of the classroom, but, at its best, is a way of life, one which is marked by respect for evidence and for logic, by inquisitiveness and the genius to find new meaning in familiar data, and by the ability to see things in context, to relate specificities to generalities, facts to theories, and theories to facts. <br />
The second characteristic of great teaching is <b>integrity,</b> in at least two of its separate meanings. First there is probity: characteristics of honesty, principle and decent candor. These qualities are fundamental, of course, to the good life for anyone, but they play a special role in the behavior of those of us who inevitably, as we live together with them, influence younger people by our example. <br />
Another, but equally important, kind of integrity is <b>completeness</b> or unity of character, the sense of self-confidence and personal identity a fine teacher exhibits. There is much pop jargon around to describe this, some of it useful: "knowing who you are," "getting it together," "not losing one's cool." Because they are teenagers, most of our students' most painful trials are in finding their own selves, in gaining proper self-confidence, and they look to us as people who have learned to control the ambiguities, pressures and restrictions of life rather than having them control us. A fine teacher is not particularly one who exudes self-confidence from every pore -- a superperson (more likely, a hypocrite!). Far from it. A fine teacher does have confidence, but the honest confidence that flows from a fair recognition of one's own frailties as well as talents and which accommodates both joyfully. The lack of assurance that typically marks adolescence and that takes observable form in pettiness, distortion, scapegoating, over-reacting, or withdrawl ideally is balanced in a school by the presence of adults who have grown to channel and control these sturdily persistent human traits. A teenager leans little from older folk, of whatever scholarly brilliance, who as people are themselves yet teenagers. <br />
The ability to <b>communicate</b> with the young is the third basic characteristic of good teaching. It means, obviously, liking young people, enjoying their noisy exuberance and intense questioning, which is their process of growing up. It means the ability to empathize, to see a situation as the student sees it. A good teacher must be, obviously, a compulsive listener. It means the skill of provoking more out of a student than he believed possible, of knowing the tests to which to put a young scholar in order that he be convinced of his own learning and to lure him into further learning. It means a belief in the dignity of young people and in the stage of life at which they now find themselves. Great teachers neither mock nor underestimate the young. <br />
I am intensely aware that the foregoing description sounds pretentious and begs specificity. I won't apologize for the pretension. I believe these goals are both achievable and proper for each of us as professional teachers to hold. Lesser goals, or more pragmatic goals demean us, I believe, and would suggest that the teacher's craft is less human and more mechanical than it properly should be. But I do recognize that lack of specificity, and respond to it by recounting some little incidents and practices I've observed among members of this assembled company. Acts which may appear trivial in themselves, but which, when added to the hundreds of similar acts, create a standard and a style from which young people can learn. <br />
For example, here are some apparent minutiae: <br />
<ul><li>knowing student's names, and calling them by name </li>
<li>greeting students and colleagues pleasantly </li>
<li>going to see student friends on varied occasions (i.e., the House Counselor or teacher, attending a game or play because of a youngster who's playing) </li>
<li> remembering something that had earlier worried a student, and asking about it ("Is your mother recovering from her operation?") </li>
<li>resisting the sarcastic, if funny, <em>bon mot</em> that could be an amusing but hurtful rejoinder to a foolish comment a student has just made in class </li>
<li>never tolerating <em>ad hominem</em> remarks among students and colleagues, such as apparently benign but really insulting jokes arising from one's sex or ethnic origin </li>
<li>scrupulously following the dictum which all our parents taught us: "If you can't say anything good about someone, don't say anything at all." </li>
<li>telling a student the unvarnished truth, privately (i.e., "Susan, I honestly suspect you...", "George, you're not working hard enough.", "Sam, you are an insult to the olfactory nerves; go take a shower.", "Joan, you're a bully.") </li>
</ul>I could go on, but I trust the point is clear; such actions signal the importance a teacher feels for an individual, for his dignity and for his growth. Some others; minutiae, of a different sort: <br />
<ul><li>always insisting on the reasons for things -- in class and out -- and always taking time, one's self, to give reasons. This takes patience, indeed stretches it often to Biblical extremes </li>
<li>knowing the difference between asking students to listen to you and to hear you - and acting upon it </li>
<li>"hearing" students, and questioning them thoroughly enough to know just how they see or are confused by an issue </li>
<li>showing that you can change your mind, when evidence and logic suggest it </li>
<li>being on the edge of your subject and interests; exhibiting the same questing in your field that you would have your students feel </li>
</ul>The point here is obvious, the need to help students develop rational habits of mind and a sense of the joy of inquiry. Some others, apparent trivia: <br />
<ul><li>never being late to class or cutting it for some personal convenience </li>
<li>returning papers to students within twenty-four hours </li>
<li>insisting on neat written work, delivered on schedule </li>
<li>insisting on a formality of conduct in a classroom comparable to the formality of thought implicit in the subject being studied </li>
<li>clearly signalling the imperative of scrupulous intellectual honesty </li>
<li>insisting on clear thinking and fair-mindedness in the dormitory, on the playing field and elsewhere, as expected in the classroom </li>
<li>perceiving the results of a class as "My students know XYZ," rather than "I covered XYZ in class" - and knowing the difference between the two </li>
</ul>The message here unequivocally is the deep seriousness we have for intellectual values and for learning. Some other minutiae; ones that help students to grow: <br />
<ul><li>always expect a bit more of a student than he expects of himself </li>
<li>accentuate the positive; be careful always to praise good work. No one learns anything faster than when he feels he is successful </li>
<li>exhibit the greatest possible friendliness that one can honestly exhibit to a student one doesn't like, and try to repress personal annoyances </li>
<li>be friends with students, but not buddies; the obligations of the latter relationship limit one's freedom to teach well </li>
<li>never give up on a student, or categorize or 'brand' him permanently </li>
</ul>One can go on, and we should go on among ourselves all year. I admit that this definition of teaching -- a mix of scholarship, integrity and the gift of communicating with the young -- is in its generality often as difficult to categorize as it is to describe. It turns on a person's style, character. We mustn't be afraid to confront this fact, and deal with it. I take heart in this situation by recalling the consternation of some university colleagues of mine when they discovered a persistently inconsistent hiccup in their masses of research data on students' school performance, a hiccup of excellence that could be explained by the fact that the teachers in a particular school gave a damn. The students in my colleagues' study shouldn't have performed well in this -- but they did. It's so much easier for social scientists to explain realities in terms of income level, or ethnic origin, or average ages. But "giving a damn"? Caring about kids? It made a difference, they -- but they were embarrassed to admit it. We shouldn't be embarrassed!dewi maya sarihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15834181005858421380noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7262665079592225475.post-638060322791726402009-12-29T10:48:00.002+07:002009-12-29T10:48:30.288+07:00teaching 9<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Spiritual_teacher">Spiritual teacher</span></h2><div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiritual_teacher" title="Spiritual teacher">Spiritual teacher</a></div>In <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a> the spiritual teacher is known as a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guru" title="Guru">guru</a>. In the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latter_Day_Saint_movement" title="Latter Day Saint movement">Latter Day Saint movement</a> the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teacher_%28Latter_Day_Saints%29" title="Teacher (Latter Day Saints)">teacher</a> is an office in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aaronic_priesthood" title="Aaronic priesthood">Aaronic priesthood</a>, while in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan Buddhism</a> the teachers of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dharma_%28Buddhism%29" title="Dharma (Buddhism)">Dharma</a> in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibet" title="Tibet">Tibet</a> are most commonly called a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lama" title="Lama">Lama</a>. A Lama who has through <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phowa" title="Phowa">phowa</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siddhi" title="Siddhi">siddhi</a> consciously determined to be reborn, often many times, in order to continue their <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">Bodhisattva</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vow" title="Vow">vow</a> is called a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tulku" title="Tulku">Tulku</a>.<br />
There are many concepts of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teachers_in_Islam" title="Teachers in Islam">teachers in Islam</a>, ranging from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mullah" title="Mullah">mullahs</a> (the teachers at <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madrassa" title="Madrassa">madrassas</a>) to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulema" title="Ulema">ulemas</a>.<br />
A <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rabbi" title="Rabbi">Rabbi</a> is generally regarded as the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish" title="Jewish">Jewish</a> spiritual teacher.dewi maya sarihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15834181005858421380noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7262665079592225475.post-68466689427050714592009-12-29T10:47:00.002+07:002009-12-29T10:47:47.306+07:00teaching 8<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Teaching_around_the_world">Teaching around the world</span></h2>There are many similarities and differences among teachers around the world. In almost all countries teachers are educated in a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University" title="University">university</a> or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College" title="College">college</a>. Governments may require <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Certified_teacher" title="Certified teacher">certification</a> by a recognized body before they can teach in a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School" title="School">school</a>. In many countries, elementary school education certificate is earned after completion of high school. The high school student follows an education specialty track, obtain the prerequisite "student-teaching" time, and receive a special diploma to begin teaching after graduation.<br />
<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_schools" title="International schools">International schools</a> generally follow an English-speaking, Western curriculum and are aimed at expatriate communities<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-intschools_11-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teaching#cite_note-intschools-11"><span>[</span>12<span>]</span></a></sup>.<br />
<h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Teacher&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Canada">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="Canada">Canada</span></h3><div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_in_Canada" title="Education in Canada">Education in Canada</a></div>Teaching in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a> requires a post-secondary degree <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bachelor_Degree" title="Bachelor Degree">Bachelor Degree</a> where the last year would be a focus on <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teaching" title="Teaching">Teaching</a>. Salary ranges from $35,000/year to $85,000/yr. Teachers have the option to teach for a public school which is funded by the provincial government or teaching in a private school which is funded by the private sector, businesses and sponsors.<br />
<h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Teacher&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: England and Wales">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="England_and_Wales">England and Wales</span></h3><div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Education in the United Kingdom">Education in the United Kingdom</a></div>Salaries for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nursery_school" title="Nursery school">Nursery</a>, Primary and Secondary School teachers ranged from <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GBP" title="GBP">£</a>20,133 to £41,004 in September 2007, although some salaries can go much higher depending on experience.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-12"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teaching#cite_note-12"><span>[</span>13<span>]</span></a></sup> Preschool teachers may earn £20,980 annually.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact" style="white-space: nowrap;" title="This claim needs references to reliable sources from January 2008">[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup> Teachers in state schools must have at least a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bachelor%27s_degree" title="Bachelor's degree">bachelor's degree</a>, complete an approved teacher education program, and be licensed.<br />
Many counties offer alternative licensing programs to attract people into teaching, especially for hard-to-fill positions. Excellent job opportunities are expected as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retirement" title="Retirement">retirements</a>, especially among secondary school teachers, outweigh slowing enrollment growth; opportunities will vary by geographic area and subject taught.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact" style="white-space: nowrap;" title="This claim needs references to reliable sources from January 2008">[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup><br />
<h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Teacher&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: France">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="France">France</span></h3><div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_in_France" title="Education in France">Education in France</a></div>In <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>, teachers, or <i>professors</i>, are mainly civil servants, recruited by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Competitive_examination" title="Competitive examination">competitive examination</a>.<br />
<h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Teacher&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Republic of Ireland">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="Republic_of_Ireland">Republic of Ireland</span></h3><div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_in_Ireland" title="Education in Ireland">Education in Ireland</a></div>Salaries for primary teachers in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland" title="Republic of Ireland">Republic of Ireland</a> depend mainly on seniority (i.e. holding the position of <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principal_%28school%29" title="Principal (school)">principal</a>, deputy principal or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assistant_principal" title="Assistant principal">assistant principal</a>), experience and qualifications. Extra pay is also given for teaching through the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language" title="Irish language">Irish language</a>, in a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaeltacht" title="Gaeltacht">Gaeltacht</a> area or on an <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islands_of_Ireland" title="Islands of Ireland">island</a>. The basic pay for a starting teacher is <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euro" title="Euro">€</a>31,028 <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Per_annum" title="Per annum">p.a.</a>, rising incrementally to €57,403 for a teacher with 25 years' service. A principal of a large school with many years' experience and several qualifications (<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M.A._%28postgraduate%29" title="M.A. (postgraduate)">M.A.</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H.Dip." title="H.Dip.">H.Dip.</a>, etc.) could earn over €90,000.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-13"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teaching#cite_note-13"><span>[</span>14<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
<h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Teacher&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Scotland">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="Scotland">Scotland</span></h3><div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_in_Scotland" title="Education in Scotland">Education in Scotland</a></div>In <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>, anyone wishing to teach must be registered with the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Teaching_Council_for_Scotland" title="General Teaching Council for Scotland">General Teaching Council for Scotland</a> (GTCS). Teaching in Scotland is an all graduate profession and the normal route for graduates wishing to teach is to complete a programme of Initial Teacher Education (ITE) at one of the seven Scottish Universities who offer these courses. Once successfully completed, 'Provisional Registration' is given by the GTCS which is raised to 'Full Registration' status after a year if there is sufficient evidence to show that the 'Standard for Full Registration' has been met.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-14"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teaching#cite_note-14"><span>[</span>15<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
For salary year beginning April 2008, unpromoted teachers in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a> earned from £20,427 for a Probationer, up to £32,583 after 6 years teaching, but could then go on to earn up to £39,942 as they complete the modules to earn Chartered Teacher Status (requiring at least 6 years at up to two modules per year.) Promotion to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principal_Teacher" title="Principal Teacher">Principal Teacher</a> positions attracts a salary of between £34,566 and £44,616; Deputy Head, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head_teacher" title="Head teacher">Head teachers</a> earn from £40,290 to £78,642.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-15"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teaching#cite_note-15"><span>[</span>16<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
<h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Teacher&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: United States">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="United_States">United States</span></h3><div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 252px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Teacher_writing_on_a_Blackboard.jpg"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="167" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Teacher_writing_on_a_Blackboard.jpg/250px-Teacher_writing_on_a_Blackboard.jpg" width="250" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Teacher_writing_on_a_Blackboard.jpg" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" /></a></div>An American teacher writing on a blackboard.</div></div></div><div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_in_the_United_States" title="Education in the United States">Education in the United States</a></div><div class="rellink">Further information: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paraprofessional_educator" title="Paraprofessional educator">Paraprofessional educator</a></div>In the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, each <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._state" title="U.S. state">state</a> determines the requirements for getting a license to teach in public schools. Public school teachers are required to have a bachelor's degree and the majority must be certified by the state in which they teach. Many <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charter_schools" title="Charter schools">charter schools</a> do not require that their teachers be certified, provided they meet the standards to be highly qualified as set by <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No_Child_Left_Behind" title="No Child Left Behind">No Child Left Behind</a>. Additionally, the requirements for substitute/temporary teachers are generally not as rigorous as those for full-time professionals. The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bureau_of_Labor_Statistics" title="Bureau of Labor Statistics">Bureau of Labor Statistics</a> estimates that there are 1.4 million <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementary_school" title="Elementary school">elementary school</a> teachers,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-16"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teaching#cite_note-16"><span>[</span>17<span>]</span></a></sup> 674,000 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_school" title="Middle school">middle school</a> teachers,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-17"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teaching#cite_note-17"><span>[</span>18<span>]</span></a></sup> and 1 million <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_school" title="Secondary school">secondary school</a> teachers employed in the U.S.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-18"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teaching#cite_note-18"><span>[</span>19<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
In the past, teachers have been paid relatively low salaries. However, average teacher salaries have improved rapidly in recent years. US teachers are generally paid on graduated scales, with income depending on experience. Teachers with more experience and higher education earn more than those with a standard bachelor’s degree and certificate. Salaries vary greatly depending on state, relative cost of living, and grade taught. Salaries also vary within states where wealthy suburban school districts generally have higher salary schedules than other districts. The median salary for all primary and secondary teachers was <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USD" title="USD">$</a>46,000 in 2004, with the average entry salary for a teacher with a bachelor's degree being an estimated $32,000. Median salaries for preschool teachers, however, were less than half the national median for secondary teachers, clock in at an estimated $21,000 in 2004.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-US_Salaries.2C_2004_19-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teaching#cite_note-US_Salaries.2C_2004-19"><span>[</span>20<span>]</span></a></sup> For high school teachers, median salaries in 2007 ranged from $35,000 in South Dakota to $71,000 in New York, with a national median of $52,000.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-US_Salaries.2C_2007_20-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teaching#cite_note-US_Salaries.2C_2007-20"><span>[</span>21<span>]</span></a></sup> Some contracts may include long-term <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disability_insurance" title="Disability insurance">disability insurance</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_insurance" title="Life insurance">life insurance</a>, emergency/<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_leave" title="Personal leave">personal leave</a> and investment options.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-21"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teaching#cite_note-21"><span>[</span>22<span>]</span></a></sup> The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Federation_of_Teachers" title="American Federation of Teachers">American Federation of Teachers</a>' teacher salary survey for the 2004-05 school year found that the average teacher salary was $47,602.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-22"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teaching#cite_note-22"><span>[</span>23<span>]</span></a></sup> In a salary survey report for K-12 teachers, elementary school teachers had the lowest median salary earning $39,259. High school teachers had the highest median salary earning $41,855.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-23"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teaching#cite_note-23"><span>[</span>24<span>]</span></a></sup>. Many teachers take advantage of the opportunity to increase their income by supervising after-school programs and other extracurricular activities. In addition to monetary compensation, public school teachers may also enjoy greater benefits (like health insurance) compared to other occupations. Also merit pay systems are on the rise for teachers, paying teachers extra money based on excellent classroom evaluations, high test scores and for high success at their overall school.dewi maya sarihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15834181005858421380noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7262665079592225475.post-3006405911200892682009-12-29T10:46:00.003+07:002009-12-29T10:46:56.177+07:00teaching 7<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Misconduct">Misconduct</span></h2><div class="rellink boilerplate seealso">See also: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child_abuse" title="Child abuse">Child abuse</a></div>Misconduct by teachers, especially <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_misconduct" title="Sexual misconduct">sexual misconduct</a>, has been getting increased scrutiny from the media and the courts.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-7"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teaching#cite_note-7"><span>[</span>8<span>]</span></a></sup> A study by the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Association_of_University_Women" title="American Association of University Women">American Association of University Women</a> reported that 0.6% of students in the United States claim to have received unwanted sexual attention from an adult associated with education - be they a volunteer, bus driver, teacher, administrator or other adult - sometime during their educational career.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-DOEd_8-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teaching#cite_note-DOEd-8"><span>[</span>9<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
A study in England showed a 0.3% prevalence of sexual abuse by any professional, a group that included <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priest" title="Priest">priests</a>, religious leaders, and case workers as well as teachers.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-9"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teaching#cite_note-9"><span>[</span>10<span>]</span></a></sup> It is important to note, however, that the British study referenced above is the only one of its kind and consisted of "a random ... probability sample of 2,869 young people between the ages of 18 and 24 in a computer-assisted study" and that the questions referred to "sexual abuse with a professional," not necessarily a teacher. It is therefore logical to conclude that information on the percentage of abuses by teachers in the United Kingdom is not explicitly available and therefore not necessarily reliable. The AAUW study, however, posed questions about fourteen types of sexual harassment and various degrees of frequency and included only abuses by teachers. "The sample was drawn from a list of 80,000 schools to create a stratified two-stage sample design of 2,065 8th to 11th grade students"Its reliability was gauged at 95% with a 4% margin of error.<br />
In the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> especially, several high-profile cases such as <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debra_LaFave" title="Debra LaFave">Debra LaFave</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pamela_Rogers" title="Pamela Rogers">Pamela Rogers</a>, and <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Kay_Latourneau" title="Mary Kay Latourneau">Mary Kay Latourneau</a> have caused increased scrutiny on teacher misconduct.<br />
Chris Keates, the general secretary of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Association_of_Schoolmasters_Union_of_Women_Teachers" title="National Association of Schoolmasters Union of Women Teachers">National Association of Schoolmasters Union of Women Teachers</a>, said that teachers who have sex with pupils over the age of consent should not be placed on the sex offenders register and that prosecution for statutory rape "is a real anomaly in the law that we are concerned about." This has led to outrage from child protection and parental rights groups.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-10"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teaching#cite_note-10"><span>[</span>11<span>]</span></a></sup>dewi maya sarihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15834181005858421380noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7262665079592225475.post-37166436357700934322009-12-29T10:46:00.000+07:002009-12-29T10:46:01.762+07:00teaching 6<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Stress">Stress</span></h2>As a profession, teaching has very high levels of stress which are listed as amongst the highest of any profession in some countries. The degree of this problem is becoming increasingly recognized and support systems are being put into place.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-TSN_3-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teaching#cite_note-TSN-3"><span>[</span>4<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-TSNs_4-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teaching#cite_note-TSNs-4"><span>[</span>5<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
There are many factors that contribute to stress among teachers. These factors include the amount of time spent in class, preparing for class, counseling students, and traveling to teacher conferences; working with a large number of students with various needs, abilities, disabilities, and cognitive levels; learning new technology; changes in administrative leadership; lack of financial and personnel support; and time pressures and deadlines. While trying to deal with these issues teachers also have to deal with personal problems and issues. These stresses can also affect teaching quality.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-5"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teaching#cite_note-5"><span>[</span>6<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
There are many healthy and unhealthy forms of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress_management" title="Stress management">stress management</a>. Finding time and ways to relax, developing a healthy lifestyle, accepting what cannot be changed, and avoiding unnecessary stress are all ways to deal with the stresses of teaching.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-6"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teaching#cite_note-6"><span>[</span>7</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teaching#cite_note-6"><span></span></a></sup>dewi maya sarihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15834181005858421380noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7262665079592225475.post-92046738189745269472009-12-29T10:45:00.002+07:002009-12-29T10:45:15.518+07:00teaching 5<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Obligation_to_honor_students_rights">Obligation to honor students rights</span></h2><dl><dd><i>Main article: <a class="external text" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_discipline#Discipline_in_Sudbury_Model_Democratic_Schools" rel="nofollow">Discipline in Sudbury Model Democratic Schools</a></i></dd></dl><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudbury_model" title="Sudbury model">Sudbury model</a> democratic schools claim that popularly-based authority can maintain order more effectively than dictatorial authority for governments and schools alike. They also claim that in these schools the preservation of public order is easier and more efficient than anywhere else. Primarily because rules and regulations are made by the community as a whole, thence the school atmosphere is one of persuasion and negotiation, rather than confrontation since there is no one to confront. Sudbury model democratic schools experience shows that a school that has good, clear laws, fairly and democratically passed by the entire school community, and a good judicial system for enforcing these laws, is a school in which community discipline prevails, and in which an increasingly sophisticated concept of law and order develops, against other schools today, where rules are arbitrary, authority is absolute, punishment is capricious, and due process of law is unknown.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-2"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teaching#cite_note-2"><span>[</span>3<span>]</span></a></sup>dewi maya sarihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15834181005858421380noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7262665079592225475.post-40392656862378018082009-12-29T10:44:00.002+07:002009-12-29T10:44:35.478+07:00teaching 4<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Rights_to_enforce_school_discipline">Rights to enforce school discipline</span></h2><div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">Main articles: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_discipline" title="School discipline">School discipline</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_punishment" title="School punishment">School punishment</a></div>Throughout the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_education" title="History of education">history of education</a> the most common form of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_discipline" title="School discipline">school discipline</a> was <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_corporal_punishment" title="School corporal punishment">corporal punishment</a>. While a child was in school, a teacher was expected to act as a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_loco_parentis" title="In loco parentis">substitute parent</a>, with all the normal forms of parental discipline open to them.<br />
<div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 122px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Koerperstrafe-_MA_Birkenrute.png"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="170" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/Koerperstrafe-_MA_Birkenrute.png" width="120" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Koerperstrafe-_MA_Birkenrute.png" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" /></a></div>Medieval schoolboy birched on the bare buttocks</div></div></div>In past times, corporal punishment (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanking" title="Spanking">spanking</a> or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paddle_%28spanking%29" title="Paddle (spanking)">paddling</a> or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caning" title="Caning">caning</a> or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strapping_%28punishment%29" title="Strapping (punishment)">strapping</a> or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birching" title="Birching">birching</a> the student in order to cause physical pain) was one of the most common forms of school discipline throughout much of the world. Most Western countries, and some others, have now banned it, but it remains lawful in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> following a US Supreme Court decision in 1977 which held that paddling did not violate the US Constitution.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teaching#cite_note-1"><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
30 US states have banned corporal punishment, the others (mostly in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">the South</a>) have not. It is still used to a significant (though declining) degree in some public schools in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alabama" title="Alabama">Alabama</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arkansas" title="Arkansas">Arkansas</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgia_%28U.S._state%29" title="Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louisiana" title="Louisiana">Louisiana</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mississippi" title="Mississippi">Mississippi</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oklahoma" title="Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennessee" title="Tennessee">Tennessee</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas" title="Texas">Texas</a>. Private schools in these and most other states may also use it. Corporal punishment in American schools is administered to the seat of the student's trousers or skirt with a specially-made wooden paddle. This often used to take place in the classroom or hallway, but nowadays the punishment is usually given privately in the principal's office.<br />
Official corporal punishment, often by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caning" title="Caning">caning</a>, remains commonplace in schools in some Asian, African and Caribbean countries. For details of individual countries see <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_corporal_punishment" title="School corporal punishment">School corporal punishment</a>.<br />
Currently detention is one of the most common punishments in schools in the United States, the UK, Ireland, Singapore and other countries. It requires the pupil to remain in school at a given time in the school day (such as lunch, recess or after school) - or even to attend school on a non-school day, e.g. "Saturday detention" held at some US schools. During detention, students normally have to sit in a classroom and do work, write lines or a punishment essay, or sit quietly.<br />
A modern example of school discipline in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a> relies upon the idea of an assertive teacher who is prepared to impose their will upon a class. Positive reinforcement is balanced with immediate and fair punishment for misbehaviour and firm, clear boundaries define what is appropriate and inappropriate behaviour. Teachers are expected to respect their students, and sarcasm and attempts to humiliate pupils are seen as falling outside of what constitutes reasonable discipline.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space: nowrap;" title="The material in the vicinity of this tag needs to be fact-checked with the cited source(s) from December 2007">[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification needed</a></i>]</sup><br />
Whilst this is the consensus viewpoint amongst the majority of academics, some teachers and parents advocate a more assertive and confrontational style of discipline.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact" style="white-space: nowrap;" title="This claim needs references to reliable sources from December 2007">[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup> Such individuals claim that many problems with modern schooling stem from the weakness in school discipline and if teachers exercised firm control over the classroom they would be able to teach more efficiently. This viewpoint is supported by the educational attainment of countries -- in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">East Asia</a> for instance -- that combine strict discipline with high standards of education.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact" style="white-space: nowrap;" title="This claim needs references to reliable sources from December 2007">[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup><br />
It's not clear, however that this stereotypical view reflects the reality of East Asian classrooms or that the educational goals in these countries are commensurable with those in Western countries. In <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>, for example, although average attainment on standardized tests may exceed those in Western countries, classroom discipline and behavior is highly problematic. Although, officially, schools have extremely rigid codes of behavior, in practice many teachers find the students unmanageable and do not enforce discipline at all.<br />
Where school class sizes are typically 40 to 50 students, maintaining order in the classroom can take divert the teacher from instruction, leaving little opportunity for concentration and focus on what is being taught. In response, teachers may concentrate their attention on motivated students, ignoring attention-seeking and disruptive students. The result of this is that motivated students, facing demanding university entrance examinations, receive disproportionate resources, while the rest of the students are allowed, perhaps expected to, fail.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space: nowrap;" title="The material in the vicinity of this tag seems to express a non-neutral point of view from September 2008">[<i><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:POV" title="Wikipedia:POV">opinion needs balancing</a></i>]</sup> Given the emphasis on attainment of university places, administrators and governors may regard this policy as appropriate.dewi maya sarihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15834181005858421380noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7262665079592225475.post-33095240303128470062009-12-29T10:43:00.003+07:002009-12-29T10:43:54.837+07:00teaching 3<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Pedagogy_and_teaching">Pedagogy and teaching</span></h2><div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 252px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Teacher_in_Laos.jpg"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="188" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Teacher_in_Laos.jpg/250px-Teacher_in_Laos.jpg" width="250" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Teacher_in_Laos.jpg" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" /></a></div>A primary school teacher in northern <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laos" title="Laos">Laos</a></div></div></div>In <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education" title="Education">education</a>, teachers facilitate <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Student" title="Student">student</a> learning, often in a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School" title="School">school</a> or academy or perhaps in another environment such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outdoor_education" title="Outdoor education">outdoors</a>. A teacher who teaches on an individual basis may be described as a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tutor" title="Tutor">tutor</a>.<br />
The objective is typically accomplished through either an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informal_learning" title="Informal learning">informal</a> or formal approach to learning, including a course of study and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lesson_plan" title="Lesson plan">lesson plan</a> that teaches <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skill" title="Skill">skills</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a> and/or <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thinking" title="Thinking">thinking</a> skills. Different ways to teach are often referred to as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedagogy" title="Pedagogy">pedagogy</a>. When deciding what teaching method to use teachers consider students' background knowledge, environment, and their learning goals as well as standardized curricula as determined by the relevant authority. Many times, teachers assist in learning outside of the classroom by accompanying students on field trips. The increasing use of technology, specifically the rise of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">internet</a> over the past decade, has begun to shape the way teachers approach their roles in the classroom.<br />
The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goal" title="Goal">objective</a> is typically a course of study, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lesson_plan" title="Lesson plan">lesson plan</a>, or a practical skill. A teacher may follow standardized <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curriculum" title="Curriculum">curricula</a> as determined by the relevant authority. The teacher may interact with students of different ages, from infants to adults, students with different abilities and students with learning disabilities.<br />
Teaching using pedogogy also involve assessing the educational levels of the students on particular skills. Understanding the pedogogy of the students in a classroom involves using <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differentiated_instruction" title="Differentiated instruction">differentiated instruction</a>, as well as, supervision to meet the needs of all students in the classroom. Pedogogy can be thought of in two manners. First, teaching itself can be taught in many different ways, hence, using a pedogogy of teaching styles. Second, the pedogogy of the learners comes into play when a teacher assesses the pedogogic diversity of his/her students and differentiates for the individual students accordingly.<br />
Perhaps the most significant difference between <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_school" title="Primary school">primary school</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_school" title="Secondary school">secondary school</a> teaching is the relationship between teachers and children. In primary schools each class has a teacher who stays with them for most of the week and will teach them the whole curriculum. In secondary schools they will be taught by different subject specialists each session during the week and may have 10 or more different teachers. The relationship between children and their teachers tends to be closer in the primary school where they act as form tutor, specialist teacher and surrogate parent during the course of the day.<br />
This is true throughout most of the United States as well. However, alternative approaches for primary education do exist. One of these, sometimes referred to as a "platoon" system, involves placing a group of students together in one class that moves from one specialist to another for every subject. The advantage here is that students learn from teachers who specialize in one subject and who tend to be more knowledgeable in that one area than a teacher who teaches many subjects. Students still derive a strong sense of security by staying with the same group of peers for all classes.<br />
Co-teaching has also become a new trend amongst educational institutions. Co-teaching is defined as two or more teachers working harmoniously to fulfill the needs of every student in the classroom. Co-teaching focuses the student on learning by providing a social networking support that allows them to reach their full cognitive potential. Co-teachers work in sync with one another to create a climate of learning.dewi maya sarihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15834181005858421380noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7262665079592225475.post-64271702880714769122009-12-29T10:43:00.000+07:002009-12-29T10:43:00.946+07:00teaching 2<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Professional_educators">Professional educators</span></h2><table class="metadata plainlinks ambox ambox-content"><tbody>
<tr> <td class="mbox-image"> <div style="width: 52px;"><img alt="" height="40" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f4/Ambox_content.png" width="40" /></div></td> <td class="mbox-text">This section <b>is missing <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">citations</a> or needs <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Footnotes" title="Wikipedia:Footnotes">footnotes</a></b>. Please help add <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Inline_citations" title="Wikipedia:Inline citations">inline citations</a> to guard against copyright violations and factual inaccuracies. <small><i>(January 2008)</i></small></td> </tr>
</tbody></table>Teaching may be carried out informally, within the family which is called home schooling (see <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeschooling" title="Homeschooling">Homeschooling</a>) or the wider community. Formal teaching may be carried out by paid <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Professional" title="Professional">professionals</a>. Such professionals enjoy a status in some societies on a par with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physician" title="Physician">physicians</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawyer" title="Lawyer">lawyers</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineer" title="Engineer">engineers</a>, and accountants (<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chartered_accountancy" title="Chartered accountancy">Chartered</a> or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Certified_Public_Accountant" title="Certified Public Accountant">CPA</a>).<br />
A teacher's professional duties may extend beyond formal teaching. Outside of the classroom teachers may accompany students on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_trip" title="Field trip">field trips</a>, supervise <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Study_hall" title="Study hall">study halls</a>, help with the organization of school functions, and serve as supervisors for <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extracurricular_activities" title="Extracurricular activities">extracurricular activities</a>. In some education systems, teachers may have responsibility for student <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discipline" title="Discipline">discipline</a>.<br />
Around the world teachers are often required to obtain <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_of_Education" title="College of Education">specialized education,</a> knowledge, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethical_code" title="Ethical code">codes of ethics</a> and internal monitoring.<br />
There are a variety of bodies designed to instill, preserve and update the knowledge and professional standing of teachers. Around the world many governments operate teacher's colleges, which are generally established to serve and protect the public interest through <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Certify" title="Certify">certifying</a>, governing and enforcing the standards of practice for the teaching profession.<br />
The functions of the teacher's colleges may include setting out clear standards of practice, providing for the ongoing education of teachers, investigating complaints involving members, conducting hearings into <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allegation" title="Allegation">allegations</a> of professional misconduct and taking appropriate disciplinary action and <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accredit" title="Accredit">accrediting</a> teacher education programs. In many situations teachers in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_school_%28government_funded%29" title="Public school (government funded)">publicly funded schools</a> must be members in good standing with the college, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_school" title="Private school">private schools</a> may also require their teachers to be college members. In other areas these roles may belong to the State <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Board_of_Education" title="Board of Education">Board of Education</a>, the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superintendent_of_Public_Instruction" title="Superintendent of Public Instruction">Superintendent of Public Instruction</a>, the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_Education_Agency" title="State Education Agency">State Education Agency</a> or other governmental bodies. In still other areas <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teaching_Union" title="Teaching Union">Teaching Unions</a> may be responsible for some or all of these duties.dewi maya sarihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15834181005858421380noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7262665079592225475.post-55104090621448026702009-12-29T10:41:00.002+07:002009-12-29T10:41:44.061+07:00teaching 1In <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education" title="Education">education</a>, a <b>teacher</b> is a person who provides <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schooling" title="Schooling">schooling</a> for others. A teacher who facilitates education for an individual student may also be described as a personal <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tutor" title="Tutor">tutor</a>. The role of teacher is often formal and ongoing, carried out by way of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupation" title="Occupation">occupation</a> or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Profession" title="Profession">profession</a> at a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School" title="School">school</a> or other place of formal <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education" title="Education">education</a>. In many countries, a person who wishes to become a teacher at state-funded schools must first obtain <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Certified_teacher" title="Certified teacher">professional qualifications or credentials</a> from a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University" title="University">university</a> or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College" title="College">college</a>. These professional qualifications may include the study of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedagogy" title="Pedagogy">pedagogy</a>, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science" title="Science">science</a> of teaching. Teachers may use a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lesson_plan" title="Lesson plan">lesson plan</a> to facilitate <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Student" title="Student">student</a> learning, providing a course of study which covers a standardized <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curriculum" title="Curriculum">curriculum</a>. A teacher's role may vary between <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultures" title="Cultures">cultures</a>. Teachers teach <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literacy#Teaching_literacy" title="Literacy">literacy</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numeracy" title="Numeracy">numeracy</a>, or some of the other <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curriculum#Sample_curricula" title="Curriculum">school subjects</a>. Other teachers may provide <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instruction" title="Instruction">instruction</a> in <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Craftsmanship" title="Craftsmanship">craftsmanship</a> or <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vocational_training" title="Vocational training">vocational training</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Arts" title="The Arts">the Arts</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_text" title="Religious text">religion</a> or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirituality" title="Spirituality">spirituality</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civics" title="Civics">civics</a>, community roles, or life skills. In some countries, formal education can take place through <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeschooling" title="Homeschooling">home schooling</a>.<br />
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informal_learning" title="Informal learning">Informal learning</a> may be assisted by a teacher occupying a transient or ongoing role, such as a parent or sibling or within a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family" title="Family">family</a>, or by anyone with knowledge or skills in the wider <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community" title="Community">community</a> setting.<br />
<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiritual_teacher" title="Spiritual teacher">Religious and spiritual teachers</a>, such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guru" title="Guru">gurus</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mullah" title="Mullah">mullahs</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rabbi" title="Rabbi">rabbis</a> pastors/youth pastors and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lama" title="Lama">lamas</a> may teach <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_text" title="Religious text">religious texts</a> such as the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a> or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a>.dewi maya sarihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15834181005858421380noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7262665079592225475.post-80553410714557214482009-12-29T10:33:00.000+07:002009-12-29T10:33:24.539+07:00literature 10<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Literary_techniques">Literary techniques</span></h2><div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literary_technique" title="Literary technique">Literary technique</a></div>A <b>literary technique</b> or <b>literary device</b> can be used by works of literature in order to produce a specific effect on the reader. Literary technique is distinguished from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literary_genre" title="Literary genre">literary genre</a> as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_tactics" title="Military tactics">military tactics</a> are from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_strategy" title="Military strategy">military strategy</a>. Thus, though <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Copperfield_%28novel%29" title="David Copperfield (novel)">David Copperfield</a></i> employs satire at certain moments, it belongs to the genre of comic novel, not that of satire. By contrast, <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bleak_House" title="Bleak House">Bleak House</a></i> employs satire so consistently as to belong to the genre of satirical novel. In this way, use of a technique can lead to the development of a new genre, as was the case with one of the first modern novels, <i><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pamela" title="Pamela">Pamela</a></i> by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Richardson" title="Samuel Richardson">Samuel Richardson</a>, which by using the epistolary technique strengthened the tradition of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistolary_novel" title="Epistolary novel">epistolary novel</a>, a genre which had been practiced for some time already but without the same acclaim.dewi maya sarihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15834181005858421380noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7262665079592225475.post-67016217559734104792009-12-29T10:32:00.002+07:002009-12-29T10:32:23.962+07:00literature 9<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Drama">Drama</span></h2>A <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Play_%28theatre%29" title="Play (theatre)">play</a> or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drama" title="Drama">drama</a> offers another classical literary form that has continued to evolve over the years. It generally comprises chiefly <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogue" title="Dialogue">dialogue</a> between <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fictional_character" title="Fictional character">characters</a>, and usually aims at dramatic / theatrical <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performance" title="Performance">performance</a> (see <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre" title="Theatre">theatre</a>) rather than at reading. During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opera" title="Opera">opera</a> developed as a combination of poetry, drama, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music" title="Music">music</a>. Nearly all drama took verse form until comparatively recently. Shakespeare could be considered drama. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romeo_and_Juliet" title="Romeo and Juliet">Romeo and Juliet</a>, for example, is a classic romantic drama generally accepted as literature.<br />
<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_theatre" title="Greek theatre">Greek drama</a> exemplifies the earliest form of drama of which we have substantial knowledge. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tragedy" title="Tragedy">Tragedy</a>, as a dramatic <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genre" title="Genre">genre</a>, developed as a performance associated with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religious</a> and civic <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Festival" title="Festival">festivals</a>, typically enacting or developing upon well-known <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History" title="History">historical</a> or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mythology" title="Mythology">mythological</a> themes. Tragedies generally presented very serious <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theme_%28literature%29" title="Theme (literature)">themes</a>. With the advent of newer technologies, scripts written for non-stage media have been added to this form. <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_of_the_Worlds_%28radio%29" title="War of the Worlds (radio)">War of the Worlds (radio)</a> in 1938 saw the advent of literature written for radio broadcast, and many works of Drama have been adapted for film or television. Conversely, television, film, and radio literature have been adapted to printed or electronic media.dewi maya sarihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15834181005858421380noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7262665079592225475.post-4222233480653623962009-12-29T10:31:00.002+07:002009-12-29T10:31:43.159+07:00literature 8<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Genres_of_literature">Genres of literature</span></h2>A literary genre refers to the traditional divisions of literature of various kinds according to a particular criterion of writing. See <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literary_genre" title="Literary genre">the list of literary genres</a>.<br />
List of literary genres<br />
<ul><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autobiography" title="Autobiography">Autobiography</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memoir" title="Memoir">Memoir</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiritual_autobiography" title="Spiritual autobiography">Spiritual autobiography</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biography" title="Biography">Biography</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diaries" title="Diaries">Diaries</a> and <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journals" title="Journals">Journals</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_literature" title="Electronic literature">Electronic literature</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erotic_literature" title="Erotic literature">Erotic literature</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slave_narrative" title="Slave narrative">Slave narrative</a></li>
<li>Thoughts, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proverbs" title="Proverbs">Proverbs</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiction" title="Fiction">Fiction</a> <ul><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adventure_novel" title="Adventure novel">Adventure novel</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Children%27s_literature" title="Children's literature">Children's literature</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comic_novel" title="Comic novel">Comic novel</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crime_fiction" title="Crime fiction">Crime fiction</a> <ul><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detective_fiction" title="Detective fiction">Detective fiction</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fable" title="Fable">Fable</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fairy_tale" title="Fairy tale">Fairy tale</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folklore" title="Folklore">Folklore</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fantasy" title="Fantasy">Fantasy</a> (for more details see Fantasy subgenres; <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fantasy_literature" title="Fantasy literature">fantasy literature</a>)</li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gothic_fiction" title="Gothic fiction">Gothic fiction</a> (initially synonymous with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horror" title="Horror">horror</a>)</li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historical_fiction" title="Historical fiction">Historical fiction</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horror" title="Horror">Horror</a></li>
<li><a class="new" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Medical_novel&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Medical novel (page does not exist)">Medical novel</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mystery_fiction" title="Mystery fiction">Mystery fiction</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_novel" title="Philosophical novel">Philosophical novel</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_fiction" title="Political fiction">Political fiction</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romance_novel" title="Romance novel">Romance novel</a> <ul><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historical_romance" title="Historical romance">Historical romance</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saga" title="Saga">Saga</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_Saga" title="Family Saga">Family Saga</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satire" title="Satire">Satire</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_fiction" title="Science fiction">Science fiction</a> (for more details see <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_fiction" title="Science fiction">Science fiction</a> genre)</li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thriller" title="Thriller">Thriller</a> <ul><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conspiracy_fiction" title="Conspiracy fiction">Conspiracy fiction</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_thriller" title="Legal thriller">Legal thriller</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_thriller" title="Psychological thriller">Psychological thriller</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spy_fiction" title="Spy fiction">Spy fiction</a>/<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_thriller" title="Political thriller">Political thriller</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tragedy" title="Tragedy">Tragedy</a></li>
</ul></li>
</ul>dewi maya sarihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15834181005858421380noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7262665079592225475.post-242855740490467312009-12-29T10:30:00.002+07:002009-12-29T10:30:39.186+07:00literature 7<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Other_prose_literature">Other prose literature</span></h2><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">Philosophy</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History" title="History">history</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journalism" title="Journalism">journalism</a>, and legal and scientific writings traditionally ranked as literature. They offer some of the oldest prose writings in existence; novels and prose stories earned the names "<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiction" title="Fiction">fiction</a>" to distinguish them from factual writing or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonfiction" title="Nonfiction">nonfiction</a>, which writers historically have crafted in prose.<br />
The "literary" nature of science writing has become less pronounced over the last two centuries, as advances and specialization have made new scientific research inaccessible to most audiences; science now appears mostly in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_journal" title="Scientific journal">journals</a>. Scientific works of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclid" title="Euclid">Euclid</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicus" title="Nicolaus Copernicus">Copernicus</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a> still possess great value; but since the science in them has largely become outdated, they no longer serve for scientific instruction, yet they remain too technical to sit well in most programmes of literary study. Outside of "<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">history of science</a>" programmes students rarely read such works. Many books "popularizing" science might still deserve the title "literature"; history will tell.<br />
Philosophy, too, has become an increasingly academic discipline. More of its practitioners lament this situation than occurs with the sciences; nonetheless most new philosophical work appears in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_publishing" title="Academic publishing">academic journals</a>. Major philosophers through history—<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">Descartes</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a>—have become as canonical as any writers. Some recent philosophy works are argued to merit the title "literature", such as some of the works by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Blackburn" title="Simon Blackburn">Simon Blackburn</a>; but much of it does not, and some areas, such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>, have become extremely technical to a degree similar to that of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>.<br />
A great deal of historical writing can still rank as literature, particularly the genre known as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creative_nonfiction" title="Creative nonfiction">creative nonfiction</a>. So can a great deal of journalism, such as <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literary_journalism" title="Literary journalism">literary journalism</a>. However these areas have become extremely large, and often have a primarily utilitarian purpose: to record data or convey immediate information. As a result the writing in these fields often lacks a literary quality, although it often and in its better moments has that quality. Major "literary" historians include <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procopius" title="Procopius">Procopius</a>, all of whom count as canonical literary figures.<br />
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a> offers a less clear case. Some writings of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, or even the early parts of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a>, might count as legal literature. The law tables of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hammurabi" title="Hammurabi">Hammurabi</a> of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylon</a> might count. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Roman civil law</a> as codified in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corpus_Juris_Civilis" title="Corpus Juris Civilis">Corpus Juris Civilis</a> during the reign of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian I</a> of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> has a reputation as significant literature. The founding documents of many countries, including the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Constitution" title="United States Constitution">United States Constitution</a>, can count as literature; however legal writing now rarely exhibits literary merit.<br />
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_design" title="Game design">Game design</a> scripts are never seen by the player of a game and only by the developers and/or publishers to help them understand, visualize and maintain consistency while collaborating in creating a game, the audience for these pieces is usually very small. Still, many game scripts contain immersive stories and detailed worlds making them a hidden literary genre.<br />
Most of these fields, then, through specialization or proliferation, no longer generally constitute "literature" in the sense under discussion. They may sometimes count as "literary literature"; more often they produce what one might call "technical literature" or "professional literature".dewi maya sarihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15834181005858421380noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7262665079592225475.post-90133244805649347372009-12-29T10:29:00.003+07:002009-12-29T10:29:52.386+07:00literature 6<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Fiction">Fiction</span></h2>Narrative <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiction" title="Fiction">fiction</a> (<a class="external text" href="http://moodle.ed.uiuc.edu/wiked/index.php/Narrative_prose" rel="nofollow">narrative prose</a>) generally favours prose for the writing of <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novels" title="Novels">novels</a>, short stories, graphic novels, and the like. Singular examples of these exist throughout history, but they did not develop into systematic and discrete literary forms until relatively recent centuries. Length often serves to categorize works of prose fiction. Although limits remain somewhat arbitrary, modern <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Publishing" title="Publishing">publishing</a> conventions dictate the following:<br />
<ul><li>A <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mini_saga" title="Mini saga">mini saga</a> is a short story of about 50 words or less.</li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_fiction" title="Flash fiction">Flash fiction</a> is generally defined as a piece of prose under a thousand words.</li>
<li>A <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_story" title="Short story">short story</a> is prose of between 1000 and 20,000 words (but typically more than 5000 words), which may or may not have a narrative arc.</li>
<li>A story containing between 20,000 and 50,000 words falls into the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novella" title="Novella">novella</a> category. Although this definition is very fluid, with works up to 70,000 words or more being included as novelle.</li>
<li>A work of fiction containing more than 50,000 words generally falls into the realm of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novel" title="Novel">novel</a>.</li>
</ul>A <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novel" title="Novel">novel</a> consists simply of a long story written in prose, yet the form developed comparatively recently. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icelandic_literature" title="Icelandic literature">Icelandic</a> prose <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norse_Saga" title="Norse Saga">sagas</a> dating from about the 11th century bridge the gap between traditional national <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epic_poetry" title="Epic poetry">verse epics</a> and the modern <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_novel" title="Psychological novel">psychological novel</a>. In mainland Europe, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spaniard</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miguel_de_Cervantes" title="Miguel de Cervantes">Cervantes</a> wrote perhaps the first influential novel: <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don_Quixote" title="Don Quixote">Don Quixote</a></i>, the first part of which was published in 1605 and the second in 1615. Earlier collections of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_story" title="Short story">tales</a>, such as the <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_Thousand_and_One_Nights" title="One Thousand and One Nights">One Thousand and One Nights</a></i>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Bocaccio" title="Giovanni Bocaccio">Giovanni Bocaccio</a>'s <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Decameron" title="The Decameron">Decameron</a></i> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoffrey_Chaucer" title="Geoffrey Chaucer">Chaucer</a>'s <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Canterbury_Tales" title="The Canterbury Tales">The Canterbury Tales</a></i>, have comparable forms and would classify as novels if written today. Other works written in classical <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asian_literature" title="Asian literature">Asian</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_literature" title="Arabic literature">Arabic literature</a> resemble even more strongly the novel as we now think of it—for example, works such as the Japanese <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tale_of_Genji" title="The Tale of Genji">Tale of Genji</a></i> by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murasaki_Shikibu" title="Murasaki Shikibu">Lady Murasaki</a>, the Arabic <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hayy_ibn_Yaqdhan" title="Hayy ibn Yaqdhan">Hayy ibn Yaqdhan</a></i> by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Tufail" title="Ibn Tufail">Ibn Tufail</a>, the Arabic <i><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theologus_Autodidactus" title="Theologus Autodidactus">Theologus Autodidactus</a></i> by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_al-Nafis" title="Ibn al-Nafis">Ibn al-Nafis</a>, and the Chinese <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romance_of_the_Three_Kingdoms" title="Romance of the Three Kingdoms">Romance of the Three Kingdoms</a></i> by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luo_Guanzhong" title="Luo Guanzhong">Luo Guanzhong</a>.<br />
Early novels in Europe did not, at the time, count as significant literature, perhaps because "mere" prose writing seemed easy and unimportant. It has become clear, however, that prose writing can provide aesthetic pleasure without adhering to poetic forms. Additionally, the freedom authors gain in not having to concern themselves with verse structure translates often into a more complex <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plot_%28narrative%29" title="Plot (narrative)">plot</a> or into one richer in precise detail than one typically finds even in narrative poetry. This freedom also allows an author to experiment with many different literary and presentation styles—including poetry—in the scope of a single novel.dewi maya sarihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15834181005858421380noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7262665079592225475.post-22092753371858834622009-12-29T10:29:00.000+07:002009-12-29T10:29:09.991+07:00literature 5<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Prose">Prose</span></h2><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prose" title="Prose">Prose</a></b> consists of writing that does not adhere to any particular formal structures (other than simple <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammar" title="Grammar">grammar</a>); "non-poetic" writing, perhaps. The term sometimes appears pejoratively, but prosaic writing simply says something without necessarily trying to say it in a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beautiful" title="Beautiful">beautiful</a> way, or using beautiful words. Prose writing can of course take beautiful form; but less by virtue of the formal features of words (rhymes, alliteration, metre) but rather by style, placement, or inclusion of graphics. But one need not mark the distinction precisely, and perhaps cannot do so. One area of overlap is "<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prose_poetry" title="Prose poetry">prose poetry</a>", which attempts to convey using only prose, the aesthetic richness typical of poetry.dewi maya sarihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15834181005858421380noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7262665079592225475.post-39820930145291592042009-12-29T10:28:00.000+07:002009-12-29T10:28:33.308+07:00literature 4<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Poetry">Poetry</span></h2>A <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poem" title="Poem">poem</a> is a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Composition" title="Composition">composition</a> written in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meter_%28poetry%29" title="Meter (poetry)">verse</a> (although verse has been equally used for epic and dramatic fiction). Poems rely heavily on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imagery" title="Imagery">imagery</a>, precise word choice, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphor" title="Metaphor">metaphor</a>; they may take the form of measures consisting of patterns of stresses (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meter_%28poetry%29" title="Meter (poetry)">metric feet</a>) or of patterns of different-length syllables (as in classical <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prosody_%28poetry%29" title="Prosody (poetry)">prosody</a>); and they may or may not utilize <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhyme" title="Rhyme">rhyme</a>. One cannot readily characterize <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poetry" title="Poetry">poetry</a> precisely. Typically though, poetry as a form of literature makes some significant use of the <i>formal</i> properties of the words it uses – the properties of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Writing" title="Writing">written</a> or <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech_communication" title="Speech communication">spoken</a> form of the words, independent of their meaning. Meter depends on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syllable" title="Syllable">syllables</a> and on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhythm" title="Rhythm">rhythms</a> of speech; rhyme and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alliteration" title="Alliteration">alliteration</a> depend on the sounds of words.<br />
Poetry perhaps pre-dates other forms of literature: early known examples include the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumerian</a> <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epic_of_Gilgamesh" title="Epic of Gilgamesh">Epic of Gilgamesh</a></i> (dated from around <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3rd_millennium_BC" title="3rd millennium BC">2700 B.C.</a>), parts of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a>, the surviving works of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homer" title="Homer">Homer</a> (the <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iliad" title="Iliad">Iliad</a></i> and the <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odyssey" title="Odyssey">Odyssey</a></i>), and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_epic_poetry" title="Indian epic poetry">Indian epics</a> <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramayana" title="Ramayana">Ramayana</a></i> and <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahabharata" title="Mahabharata">Mahabharata</a></i>. In cultures based primarily on oral traditions the formal characteristics of poetry often have a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mnemonic" title="Mnemonic">mnemonic</a> function, and important texts: legal, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genealogy" title="Genealogy">genealogical</a> or moral, for example, may appear first in verse form.<br />
Some poetry uses specific forms: the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haiku" title="Haiku">haiku</a>, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limerick_%28poetry%29" title="Limerick (poetry)">limerick</a>, or the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonnet" title="Sonnet">sonnet</a>, for example. A traditional haiku written in Japanese must have something to do with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">nature</a>, contain seventeen onji (syllables), distributed over three lines in groups of five, seven, and five, and should also have a kigo, a specific word indicating a season. A limerick has five lines, with a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhyme_scheme" title="Rhyme scheme">rhyme scheme</a> of AABBA, and line lengths of 3,3,2,2,3 stressed syllables. It traditionally has a less reverent attitude towards nature. Poetry not adhering to a formal poetic structure is called "<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_verse" title="Free verse">free verse</a>"<br />
Language and tradition dictate some poetic norms: Persian poetry always rhymes, Greek poetry rarely rhymes, Italian or French poetry often does, English and German poetry can go either way. Perhaps the most <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paradigm" title="Paradigm">paradigmatic</a> style of English poetry, blank verse, as exemplified in works by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shakespeare" title="William Shakespeare">Shakespeare</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a>, consists of unrhymed <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iambic_pentameter" title="Iambic pentameter">iambic pentameters</a>. Some languages prefer longer lines; some shorter ones. Some of these conventions result from the ease of fitting a specific language's vocabulary and grammar into certain structures, rather than into others; for example, some languages contain more rhyming words than others, or typically have longer words. Other structural conventions come about as the result of historical accidents, where many speakers of a language associate good poetry with a verse form preferred by a particular skilled or popular poet.<br />
Works for theatre (see below) traditionally took verse form. This has now become rare outside <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opera" title="Opera">opera</a> and <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_theater" title="Musical theater">musicals</a>, although many would argue that the language of drama remains intrinsically poetic.<br />
In recent years, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_poetry" title="Digital poetry">digital poetry</a> has arisen that takes advantage of the artistic, publishing, and synthetic qualities of digital media.dewi maya sarihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15834181005858421380noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7262665079592225475.post-42032774763136682622009-12-29T10:27:00.002+07:002009-12-29T10:27:37.869+07:00literature 3<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="History">History</span></h2>One of the earliest known literary works is the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumerian</a> <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epic_of_Gilgamesh" title="Epic of Gilgamesh">Epic of Gilgamesh</a></i>, an epic poem dated around <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3rd_millennium_BC" title="3rd millennium BC">2100 B.C.</a>, which deals with themes of heroism, friendship, loss, and the quest for eternal life. Different historical periods have emphasized various characteristics of literature. Early works often had an overt or covert religious or didactic purpose. Moralizing or prescriptive literature stems from such sources. The exotic nature of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romance_%28genre%29" title="Romance (genre)">romance</a> flourished from the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> onwards, whereas the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_Reason" title="Age of Reason">Age of Reason</a> manufactured nationalistic epics and philosophical <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tract_%28literature%29" title="Tract (literature)">tracts</a>. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a> emphasized the popular folk literature and emotive involvement, but gave way in the 19th-century West to a phase of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Realism_%28arts%29" title="Realism (arts)">realism</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalism_%28literature%29" title="Naturalism (literature)">naturalism</a>, investigations into what is real. The 20th century brought demands for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbolism" title="Symbolism">symbolism</a> or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychological</a> insight in the delineation and development of character.dewi maya sarihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15834181005858421380noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7262665079592225475.post-39381185552719490582009-12-29T10:26:00.003+07:002009-12-29T10:26:52.961+07:00literature 2<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Definitions">Definitions</span></h2>People may perceive a difference between "literature" and some popular forms of written work. The terms "<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literary_fiction" title="Literary fiction">literary fiction</a>" and "<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literary_merit" title="Literary merit">literary merit</a>" often serve to distinguish between individual works. Critics may exclude works from the classification "literature," for example, on the grounds of a poor standard of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammar" title="Grammar">grammar</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">syntax</a>, of an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verisimilitude" title="Verisimilitude">unbelievable</a> or disjointed <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plot_%28narrative%29" title="Plot (narrative)">story-line</a>, or of inconsistent or unconvincing <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Characterization" title="Characterization">characters</a>. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genre_fiction" title="Genre fiction">Genre fiction</a> (for example: romance, crime, or science fiction) may also become excluded from consideration as "literature."dewi maya sarihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15834181005858421380noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7262665079592225475.post-65944003471533223822009-12-29T10:26:00.000+07:002009-12-29T10:26:02.461+07:00literature 1<h1 class="firstHeading" id="firstHeading">Literature</h1><b>Literature</b> is the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art" title="Art">art</a> of <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Written_work" title="Written work">written works</a>. Literally translated, the word means "acquaintance with letters" (from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> <i>littera</i> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letter_%28alphabet%29" title="Letter (alphabet)">letter</a>), and therefore the academic study of literature is known as <b>Letters</b> (as in the phrase "<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberal_arts" title="Liberal arts">Arts</a> and Letters"). In Western culture the most basic written literary types include <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiction" title="Fiction">fiction</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonfiction" title="Nonfiction">nonfiction</a>.dewi maya sarihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15834181005858421380noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7262665079592225475.post-22941585130278794532009-12-29T10:22:00.000+07:002009-12-29T10:22:00.805+07:00linguistic 10<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Names_for_the_discipline">Names for the discipline</span></h2>Before the twentieth century, the term "<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philology" title="Philology">philology</a>", first attested in 1716,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-etymonline_philology_4-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistics#cite_note-etymonline_philology-4"><span>[</span>5<span>]</span></a></sup> was commonly used to refer to the science of language, which was then predominantly historical in focus.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-5"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistics#cite_note-5"><span>[</span>6<span>]</span></a></sup> Since <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_de_Saussure" title="Ferdinand de Saussure">Ferdinand de Saussure</a>'s insistence on the importance of <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synchronic_analysis_%28linguistics%29" title="Synchronic analysis (linguistics)">synchronic analysis</a>, however, this focus has shifted<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-6"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistics#cite_note-6"><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup> and the term "philology" is now generally used for the "study of a language's grammar, history and literary tradition," especially in the United States,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-7"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistics#cite_note-7"><span>[</span>8<span>]</span></a></sup> where it was never as popular as it was elsewhere (in the sense of the "science of language").<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-etymonline_philology_4-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistics#cite_note-etymonline_philology-4"><span>[</span>5<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
Although the term "linguist" in the sense of "a student of language" dates from 1641,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-etymonline_linguist_8-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistics#cite_note-etymonline_linguist-8"><span>[</span>9<span>]</span></a></sup> the term "linguistics" is first attested in 1847.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-etymonline_linguist_8-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistics#cite_note-etymonline_linguist-8"><span>[</span>9<span>]</span></a></sup> It is now the usual academic term in English for the scientific study of language.dewi maya sarihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15834181005858421380noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7262665079592225475.post-35775055079179685202009-12-29T10:17:00.002+07:002009-12-29T10:17:55.908+07:00linguistics 9<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Names_for_the_discipline">Names for the discipline</span></h2>Before the twentieth century, the term "<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philology" title="Philology">philology</a>", first attested in 1716,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-etymonline_philology_4-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistics#cite_note-etymonline_philology-4"><span>[</span>5<span>]</span></a></sup> was commonly used to refer to the science of language, which was then predominantly historical in focus.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-5"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistics#cite_note-5"><span>[</span>6<span>]</span></a></sup> Since <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_de_Saussure" title="Ferdinand de Saussure">Ferdinand de Saussure</a>'s insistence on the importance of <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synchronic_analysis_%28linguistics%29" title="Synchronic analysis (linguistics)">synchronic analysis</a>, however, this focus has shifted<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-6"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistics#cite_note-6"><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup> and the term "philology" is now generally used for the "study of a language's grammar, history and literary tradition," especially in the United States,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-7"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistics#cite_note-7"><span>[</span>8<span>]</span></a></sup> where it was never as popular as it was elsewhere (in the sense of the "science of language").<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-etymonline_philology_4-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistics#cite_note-etymonline_philology-4"><span>[</span>5<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
Although the term "linguist" in the sense of "a student of language" dates from 1641,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-etymonline_linguist_8-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistics#cite_note-etymonline_linguist-8"><span>[</span>9<span>]</span></a></sup> the term "linguistics" is first attested in 1847.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-etymonline_linguist_8-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistics#cite_note-etymonline_linguist-8"><span>[</span>9<span>]</span></a></sup> It is now the usual academic term in English for the scientific study of language.dewi maya sarihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15834181005858421380noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7262665079592225475.post-34280697717172445532009-12-29T10:16:00.000+07:002009-12-29T10:16:46.858+07:00linguistic 8<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Description_and_prescription">Description and prescription</span></h2><i>Main articles: <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Descriptive_linguistics" title="Descriptive linguistics">Descriptive linguistics</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_prescription" title="Linguistic prescription">Linguistic prescription</a></i><br />
Linguistics is <b>descriptive</b>; linguists describe and explain features of language without making subjective judgments on whether a particular feature is "right" or "wrong". This is analogous to practice in other sciences: a <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoologist" title="Zoologist">zoologist</a> studies the animal kingdom without making subjective judgments on whether a particular animal is better or worse than another.<br />
<b>Prescription</b>, on the other hand, is an attempt to promote particular linguistic usages over others, often favouring a particular dialect or "<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acrolect" title="Acrolect">acrolect</a>". This may have the aim of establishing a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_language" title="Standard language">linguistic standard</a>, which can aid communication over large geographical areas. It may also, however, be an attempt by speakers of one language or dialect to exert influence over speakers of other languages or dialects (see <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_imperialism" title="Linguistic imperialism">Linguistic imperialism</a>). An extreme version of prescriptivism can be found among <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Censorship" title="Censorship">censors</a>, who attempt to eradicate words and structures which they consider to be destructive to society.dewi maya sarihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15834181005858421380noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7262665079592225475.post-60767329925782411862009-12-29T10:12:00.000+07:002009-12-29T10:12:34.920+07:00linguistics 7<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Speech_and_writing">Speech and writing</span></h2>Most contemporary linguists work under the assumption that <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spoken_language" title="Spoken language">spoken</a> (or signed) language is more fundamental than <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Written_language" title="Written language">written language</a>. This is because:<br />
<ul><li>Speech appears to be universal to all human beings capable of producing and hearing it, while there have been many <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">cultures</a> and speech communities that lack written communication;</li>
<li>Speech evolved before human beings invented writing;</li>
<li>People learn to speak and process spoken languages more easily and much earlier than <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Writing" title="Writing">writing</a>;</li>
</ul>Linguists nonetheless agree that the study of written language can be worthwhile and valuable. For research that relies on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corpus_linguistics" title="Corpus linguistics">corpus linguistics</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_linguistics" title="Computational linguistics">computational linguistics</a>, written language is often much more convenient for processing large amounts of linguistic data. Large corpora of spoken language are difficult to create and hard to find, and are typically <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcription_%28linguistics%29" title="Transcription (linguistics)">transcribed</a> and written. Additionally, linguists have turned to text-based discourse occurring in various formats of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer-mediated_communication" title="Computer-mediated communication">computer-mediated communication</a> as a viable site for linguistic inquiry.<br />
The study of <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Writing_systems" title="Writing systems">writing systems</a> themselves is in any case considered a branch of linguistics.dewi maya sarihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15834181005858421380noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7262665079592225475.post-55159421840699686402009-12-29T10:11:00.000+07:002009-12-29T10:11:22.547+07:00linguistics 6<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Structures">Structures</span></h2><div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 182px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ferdinand_de_Saussure.jpg"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="218" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Ferdinand_de_Saussure.jpg/180px-Ferdinand_de_Saussure.jpg" width="180" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ferdinand_de_Saussure.jpg" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" /></a></div><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_de_Saussure" title="Ferdinand de Saussure">Ferdinand de Saussure</a></div></div></div>It has been perceived that languages tend to be organized around <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_categories" title="Grammatical categories">grammatical categories</a> such as noun and verb, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nominative_case" title="Nominative case">nominative</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accusative_case" title="Accusative case">accusative</a>, or present and past, though, importantly, not exclusively so. The grammar of a language is organized around such fundamental categories, though many languages express the relationships between words and syntax in other discrete ways (cf. some <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bantu_languages" title="Bantu languages">Bantu languages</a> for noun/verb relations, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ergative-absolutive" title="Ergative-absolutive">ergative-absolutive</a> systems for case relations, several <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_American_languages" title="Native American languages">Native American languages</a> for tense/aspect relations).<br />
In addition to making substantial use of discrete categories, language has the important property that it organizes elements into <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recursion#Recursion_in_language" title="Recursion">recursive</a> structures; this allows, for example, a noun phrase to contain another noun phrase (as in "the chimpanzee's lips") or a clause to contain a clause (as in "I think that it's raining"). Though recursion in grammar was implicitly recognized much earlier (for example by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_Jespersen" title="Otto Jespersen">Jespersen</a>), the importance of this aspect of language became more popular after the 1957 publication of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Noam Chomsky</a>'s book <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntactic_Structures" title="Syntactic Structures">Syntactic Structures</a></i>,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-12"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistics#cite_note-12"><span>[</span>13<span>]</span></a></sup> which presented a formal grammar of a fragment of English. Prior to this, the most detailed descriptions of linguistic systems were of phonological or morphological systems.<br />
Chomsky used a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Context-free_grammar" title="Context-free grammar">context-free grammar</a> augmented with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformational_grammar#Transformations" title="Transformational grammar">transformations</a>. Since then, following the trend of Chomskyan linguistics, context-free grammars have been written for substantial fragments of various languages (for example <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generalised_phrase_structure_grammar" title="Generalised phrase structure grammar">GPSG</a>, for English). It has been demonstrated, however, that human languages (most notably Dutch and Swiss German) include cross-serial dependencies, which cannot be handled adequately by context-free grammars.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-13"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistics#cite_note-13"><span>[</span>14<span>]</span></a></sup>dewi maya sarihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15834181005858421380noreply@blogger.com0